On July 16, 1054, Michael Cerularius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, was excommunicated from the Christian church based in Rome, Italy. This excommunication marked a critical juncture in the escalating tensions between the Western Roman church (in Rome) and the Eastern Byzantine church (in Constantinople). This division is referred to as the Great Schism, also known as the “East-West Schism” or the “Schism of 1054.” The ensuing division cleaved the European Christian church into two principal branches: the Western Roman Catholic Church, which later included Protestantism, both largely influenced by Augustine’s theology, and the Eastern Orthodox Church, shaped by theologians like Origen of Alexandria. Subsequently, the notion of hell became a pivotal element in Western Christian theological discourse.
The Harrowing of Hell
In Christian theology, the Harrowing of Hell (Latin: Descensus Christi ad Inferos) is the period of time between the Crucifixion of Jesus and his resurrection. The Harrowing of Hell was depicted differently in Western and Eastern Christian traditions. In Western Christianity, the focus often lies on judgment, portraying Jesus as a judge who casts the damned into hell. This perspective is reflected in sources such as the Catechism of the Catholic Church and Dante’s “Divine Comedy,” which highlight Christ’s triumph and the finality of divine retribution. In contrast, Eastern Christianity emphasized Christ’s victory over death and His role in liberating souls, often depicting Him breaking the gates of hell and rescuing the damned, symbolizing His boundless mercy and the redemptive aspect of His mission. This approach is evident in Eastern Orthodox iconography and St. John Chrysostom’s Paschal Homily, which celebrates Christ’s universal redemption and liberation through His resurrection. These differing portrayals reflect broader theological differences between Western and Eastern traditions on hell, with the West (Catholic) focusing on judgment, while the East highlights victory and salvation.
Orthodox Christianity
The Eastern Orthodox Church, which first shared some similarities with Catholicism in viewing hell, sees Hell as a state of self-exclusion from the love and presence of God, chosen by the individual through persistent sin and rejection of God’s grace. Some Orthodox theologians emphasize the transformative nature of God’s love, even in the context of judgment in Hell, which is seen less as a place of active torturous punishment and more as a state of being that results from one’s own choices and refusal to accept divine love—much like the life of the Prodigal Son.
Catholic Christianity
In Catholic theology, hell was acknowledged as a state of eternal separation from God for those who die in a state of mortal sin. However, Catholic doctrine also introduces the concept of Purgatory, a temporary state of purification for souls destined for heaven but needing to be cleansed of venial sins or temporal punishment due to sin. Purgatory is a place of purification, where suffering serves a redemptive purpose, ultimately preparing souls for the beatific vision of God. This is a temporary state where souls who have died in a state of grace but still need purification from venial sins or the temporal effects of sins undergo cleansing before entering heaven. The idea is that these souls are assured of their eventual entrance into heaven but need to be purified to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the presence of God.
Although its roots lie in the Church Fathers’ teachings, the concept of Purgatory as a distinct place or state where souls undergo purification before entering heaven was developed gradually in later centuries, mostly taking shape in the early Middle Ages with Pope Gregory the Great (c. 540-604), who played a significant role in developing the concept of Purgatory. In his “Dialogues,” he spoke about fire being purgatorial and the need for purification after death for certain souls, helping to establish the idea within the Church.
Late Medieval Era (10th-15th Centuries)
The Second Council of Lyons (1274) provided one of the first official articulations of the doctrine of Purgatory. The council defined Purgatory as a place where souls are purified and emphasized the importance of prayers and masses for the loved ones who are dead. The Council of Florence (1438-1445) further clarified the doctrine of Purgatory, affirming the existence of a purgatorial state and the efficacy of prayers, masses, and almsgiving for the souls undergoing purification. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) solidified the doctrine of Purgatory in response to the Protestant Reformation, which rejected it and held to the “eternal torture” (ECT) view of hellfire. The council reaffirmed the existence of Purgatory and the practice of offering prayers and masses for the dead, making it an essential part of Catholic teaching.
Hellfire
As Augustine’s perspectives gradually prevailed and became entrenched in the Western Church, depictions of hellfire were often graphic and grotesque, designed to invoke fear and terror. Below are several well-known, vivid illustrations of hellfire from the Middle Ages that profoundly influenced the minds of countless individuals:
- “The Last Judgment” by Gislebertus – Gislebertus, a Romanesque sculptor, created a tympanum on the west portal of Saint-Lazare Cathedral in Autun, France. This relief sculpture allegorically yet vividly portrays the damned being led to torture. Gislebertus’ depiction of hellfire is particularly gruesome, with grotesque demons torturing the damned. Distorted figures and horrific scenes illustrate the eternal torment awaiting sinners. The Archangel Michael is shown weighing souls while demons try to tip the scales, adding to the sense of impending doom and horror. Hellfire itself is depicted as a chaotic, terrifying place, filled with suffering and demonic figures reveling in the torment of the damned.
- “L’Inferno” illustrated by Sandro Botticelli – Sandro Botticelli, one of the most renowned artists of the Italian Renaissance, created a series of drawings depicting scenes from Dante Alighieri’s “Divine Comedy.” Among these, his illustration for Canto XVII of the “Inferno” stands out as a vivid portrayal of the poet’s journey through hell. His work vividly brings to life the terrifying and grotesque aspects of what he believed hellfire was like, blending his artistic mastery with Dante’s literary genius. The central figure in Botticelli’s drawing is Geryon, depicted as a fearsome creature with a human face, the body of a serpent, and the paws of a lion. Around Geryon, Botticelli illustrates the tormented souls of the usurers. These figures are portrayed as crouching in the burning sand, with purses hanging from their necks, each bearing their family’s coat of arms.
- “The Inferno” from the Holkham Bible – This English illuminated manuscript contains a depiction of hellfire that is chaotic and crowded with damned souls and monstrous demons. The demons are illustrated as torturing the damned in a fiery landscape, with various forms of grotesque punishments that match the sins committed during their lifetime.
- “Apocalypse Tapestries” by Jean Bondol – Commissioned by the Duke of Berry, these tapestries depict scenes from the Apocalypse, including vivid representations of hell. The images are filled with monstrous beasts and dragons torturing the damned, reflecting the fears and religious beliefs of the time. These illustrations and artworks serve not only as religious teaching tools but also as reflections of the societal values and fears of their times, portraying hellfire in ways that were meant to be profoundly terrifying.
- “The Garden of Earthly Delights” by Hieronymus Bosch – Though at the very end of the medieval period and beginning of the Renaissance, Bosch’s work encapsulates the medieval imagination with its nightmarish detail. The right panel of this triptych, depicting hellfire, is filled with bizarre and disturbing images: humans are tormented by demons, creatures eat sinners, and others are subjected to endless, bizarre tortures involving various medieval instruments and creatures.
Medieval depictions of hellfire, originating from Western Europe, have undeniably impacted subsequent generations, greatly shaping the Catholic and Protestant theologies that prevailed in the area and, in modern times, becoming even more popularized through mass media depictions. These portrayals emphasize hellfire as a realm of perpetual agony, influencing theological views and societal attitudes towards sin and retribution for centuries. The stark and dreadful images of ceaseless torture and demonic entities presented a graphic and frightful vision of Augustine’s hellfire that made a deep and alarming impact on Christian followers, instilling them with fear and dread, which was then mirrored in the works of Western Christian writers, including clergy and theologians.
In summary, the most vivid descriptions of hellfire, including those in modern times, originate from early Roman Catholic authors and later artists like the Italian poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), who is famous for “Dante’s Inferno.” These depictions continued to influence literature, as seen in the works of the English poet John Milton (1608-1674), author of “Paradise Lost.” In later years, the concept of hell was further developed by Protestant theologians such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Jonathan Edwards (known as “the Theologian of Fire and Brimstone”), who brought the theology of Calvin and Luther to the United States and significantly shaped what would later become American Evangelicalism. This influence extended to the theology of other American denominations, such as Baptist, Southern Baptist, and Calvery Chapel.
While Protestant theologians generally rejected the concept of Purgatory, maintaining the Augustinian-Calvinist belief in eternal torture, Catholic theologians developed and codified the formal doctrine of Purgatory. This divergence led to differing views: Many traditional churches entertain a temporary, corrective view of hell (as a form of post-mortem purification), while conservative Protestant denominations typically adhere to the belief in eternal hellfire.
The Protestant Reformation (16th Century)
Protestant perspectives on hell, encompassing Reformed (Calvinist), Arminian, Evangelical, Pentecostal, Baptist, and other fundamentalist denominations, differ markedly from Jewish, Catholic, and Orthodox interpretations, which sometimes view hell as a corrective and temporary state. The Protestant “hellfire,” frequently depicted as a place of eternal conscious torment, is characterized by unending physical, mental, and emotional suffering through means of torture such as fire. This view, like much of the other Protestant theology, is heavily influenced by Augustine of Hippo and is based on a literal interpretation and imaginative elaboration of biblical metaphors.
In the Protestant framework, hellfire is primarily a place of everlasting revengeful retribution, where God’s justice is seen in the eternal abusive punishment of sinners. This portrayal lacks the rehabilitative or corrective elements found in other theological views. Instead, it presents a vision of hellfire that emphasizes the severity of sin and the supposed unforgiving and absolute nature of divine justice. However, problematically, it also suggests a sadistic aspect to God’s character. The concept that God could find any pleasure or gratification in the endless suffering of His creations without any chance for redemption or cessation of their pain presents deep ethical and theological dilemmas.
Please don’t understand my words as labeling the Protestant Reformation entirely bad and evil (as a Jew, it was through them that I first got introduced to Jesus!); however, we cannot overlook the negative aspects and doctrines that emerged from it.
Martin Luther and John Calvin, the two central figures behind the Protestant Reformation, profoundly influenced the various branches of Protestant Christianity. While they aimed to reform Catholic Christianity, their theological foundations remained deeply rooted in Catholic doctrine, especially that of Augustine of Hippo. Both Luther and Calvin believed and promoted a literal view of hellfire, where eternal torture awaits those who reject their theological perspectives, such as their doctrine of soteriology (how to “get saved”).
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Martin Luther, the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation, is celebrated for his role in challenging the Catholic Church and initiating religious reform with his Ninety-Five Theses. Nonetheless, Luther’s legacy is significantly tarnished by his vehement antisemitism. His later writings, such as “On the Jews and Their Lies,” are filled with vitriolic language and hateful rhetoric against Jews, which included incitements to burn Jewish synagogues and the homes of Jews and ultimately advocating for the elimination of the Jewish race. These writings have been condemned for their contribution to centuries of antisemitic sentiment and violence, with its climax in the murdering of six million Jews during the Holocaust orchestrated by Adolf Hitler, a figure who repeatedly quoted Martin Luther in his speeches and writings. Hitler praised Martin Luther as “a great warrior, a true statesman, and a great reformer.” Hitler also admitted, “Martin Luther has been the greatest encouragement of my life.“
John Calvin (1509-1564)
John Calvin was a lawyer and the other principal figure in the Protestant Reformation due to his influential works in theology, including “Institutes of the Christian Religion.” However, his legacy is marred by his role in the execution of Michael Servetus, a physician and theologian who challenged Calvin’s views. In 1553, after several attempts by Calvin, Servetus was finally arrested, tortured, and burned at the stake in Geneva for alleged heresy, highlighting Calvin’s severe and uncompromising approach. This notable event also illuminates Calvin’s thought process and perception of God. Calvin, renowned for his theological affinity for Augustine, discussed the concept of hellfire:
Language cannot describe the severity of the divine vengeance on the reprobate, their pains and torments are figured to us by corporeal things, such as darkness, wailing and gnashing of teeth, inextinguishable fire, the ever-gnawing worm.
The Protestant Confession (1647)
According to the 1647 Protestant confession, non-Protestants will be “punished with unspeakable torments, both of body and soul.“
In December 1643, a committee was formed to write the Catechism, which was completed by the Westminster Assembly in 1647. It was then adopted by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1648. Although with some modifications, it was later adopted by the Presbyterian Synod of New York and Philadelphia and by the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. The Catechism was later dropped by some groups while embraced by the successor conservative denominations, including the Presbyterian, Orthodox Presbyterian, and Evangelical Presbyterian churches.
The Wars of Religion (16th-18th Centuries)
The Wars of Religion, a series of violent conflicts that ravaged Europe during the 16th, 17th, and early 18th centuries, were primarily fueled by deep-seated theological disagreements between Catholics and Reformed Protestants. These wars, including the French Wars of Religion, the Thirty Years’ War, and the Eighty Years’ War, resulted in immense human suffering. It is estimated that up to 20 million Christians were killed, and many more were affected, with the Thirty Years’ War alone causing the deaths of about 8 million people and injuring countless more. These brutal conflicts, ostensibly over interpretations of Christian doctrine, highlight the devastating consequences of religious intolerance and the tragic cost of loveless doctrinal disputes.
The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) saw brutal massacres and widespread violence between Catholic and Reformed Protestant factions, deeply fracturing French society. The Eighty Years’ War (1568-1648) was a prolonged struggle in the Low Countries, where Protestant Dutch forces fought against the Catholic Habsburg monarchy for independence, resulting in significant destruction and loss of life for both sides. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) devastated large parts of Europe, with battles causing famine and disease, taking a further heavy toll on the general population.
“What Would Jesus do”
When Jesus initially dispatched His Jewish disciples, it was not to persuade atheists of God’s existence. Instead, it was to demonstrate to religious fundamentalists that God embodies love and, as such, they, too, should love others. Moreover, when Jesus cautioned His disciples about persecution, He was not alluding to hostility from a secular society but rather from a world ruled by religious factions prepared to commit violence for their beliefs, claiming divine sanction.
The Wars of Religion exemplify how theological disputes often escalate into extensive and destructive conflicts, revealing the dire consequences of religious extremism and intolerance. When Jesus advised, “By their fruit, you will recognize them…every good tree bears good fruit, but a bad tree bears bad fruit” (Matthew 7:16-17), He likely warned against such devastating outcomes, underscoring the importance of genuine spiritual fruit over divisive dogma. This period—which may have positioned Catholic and Protestant Christianity as the most bloodshed religions in history— serves as a somber reminder of the human cost of doctrinal rigidity and the profound physical, spiritual, and emotional impact of religious conflict on the general society, believing and unbelieving alike. Ironically, it is often those same Christians teaching that God will eternally torture those who oppose their theology who killed so many—attempting to force their theology on the world. This unfortunate era serves as sad proof that our beliefs about God and His character profoundly influence our behavior in real life—theology matters!
Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758)
Four main characters brought Protestantism to American Christianity: George Whitefield, John and Charles Wesley, and perhaps most notable, Jonathan Edwards, most known for his role in the First Great Awakening, bringing Calvin’s hellfire theology to America. On July 8th, 1741, he preached his most famous “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” sermon, greatly influencing the theological formation of American Protestant Christianity. Below is an excerpt from his speech:
The God that holds you over the pit of hell, much as one holds a spider or some loathsome insect over the fire, abhors you, and is dreadfully provoked. His wrath towards you burns like fire; he looks upon you as worthy of nothing else but to be cast into the fire. He is of purer eyes than to bear you in his sight; you are ten thousand times as abominable in his eyes as the most hateful, venomous serpent is in ours. It would be dreadful to suffer this fierceness and wrath of Almighty God one moment; but you must suffer it to all eternity. There will be no end to this exquisite, horrible misery. When you look forward, you shall see along forever a boundless duration before you, which will swallow up your thoughts, and amaze your soul. And you will absolutely despair of ever having any deliverance, any end, any mitigation, any rest at all. You will know certainly that you must wear out long ages, millions of millions of ages in wrestling with this Almighty, merciless vengeance. And then, when you have so done, when so many ages have actually been spent by you in this manner, you will know that all is but a point to what remains. So that your punishment will indeed be infinite… The world will probably be converted into a great lake or liquid globe of fire, in which the wicked shall be overwhelmed, which will always be in tempest, in which they shall be tossed to and fro, having no rest day and night, vast waves and billows of fire continually rolling over their heads, of which they shall forever be full of a quick sense within and without; their heads, their eyes, their tongues, their hands, their feet, their loins and their vitals, shall forever be full of a flowing, melting fire, fierce enough to melt the very rocks and elements; and also, they shall eternally be full of the most quick and lively sense to feel the torments; not for one minute, not for one day, not for one age, not for two ages, not for a hundred ages, nor for ten thousand millions of ages, one after another, but forever and ever, without any end at all, and never to be delivered.
To no surprise, this Puritan perspective is often criticized as condoning a type of divine sadism—or “cosmic child abuse,” as coined by several theologians. Reconciling this view with the biblical portrayal of a loving and merciful God is challenging as it portrays a God who not only allows but also perpetuates eternal suffering, resembling a vindictive despot more than a gracious, loving Father.
The divergent conceptions of hell in Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christianity underscore profound theological differences. Whereas the others include notions of correction, purification, and hope, the Protestant depiction of hellfire as a realm of ceaseless retribution and unrelenting physical, emotional, and psychological torture casts a more disturbing vision of divine justice. This depiction, focusing solely on endless pain and suffering, risks depicting God as a malevolent, abusive entity, contrary to the scriptural declarations of His loving and compassionate nature.
These variances reveal that our interpretation of hell significantly shapes our wider theological understanding of God’s essence, His connection with humankind, and our role in this world. In modern times, this has often led to significant theological reevaluation and deconstruction among numerous young Protestants, resulting in either a transition to other denominations or altogether desertion of the faith. As I will later argue, I believe the hellfire doctrine dramatically affects one’s mental and emotional health.
Christian Fundamentalism (18th Century-Today)
Denominations such as Evangelical, Baptist, Southern Baptist, Calvary Chapel, Pentecostal, Presbyterian, Methodist, Adventist, Churches of Christ, Plymouth Brethren, Charismatic, Nondenominational, Assemblies of God, Messianic, Church of the Nazarene, EFCA, and other similar modern fundamental and Reformed groups are all derivatives of conservative Protestant Christianity. They are greatly influenced by the Puritan views of Edwards, as well as the theological perspectives of Luther and Calvin, which have their origins in the teachings of Augustine of Hippo. Essentially, they all share a common theological ground with minor variations and adjustments. These denominational traditions are where hellfire preaching gained prominence and popularity, becoming the central element of the Protestant message, particularly in the context of American Christianity.
Of course, whether you agree with it or not, Protestant theology has its reasoning, well-established theological argument, and efforts to substantiate its views in the Bible. I have dedicated the next Part of the book to examining these doctrines.
This article was a copy-paste from my new book on hell: HELL: A Jewish Perspective on a Christian Doctrine
