The Hebrew Prophets also do not contain a Hebrew term equivalent to the concept of hellfire as understood in later Augustine-Calvinist Christian theology. Instead, the Hebrew word “SHEOL,” which simply refers to the realm of the dead, is variably translated in English versions of the Old Testament as “grave,” “underworld,” “pit,” “death,” and “hell.” This variation in translation has led to significant theological confusion regarding the afterlife. In this chapter, I will examine the most popular verses used to establish hellfire in the Old Testament’s prophets.
Isaiah 5:14
Isaiah’s prophetic vision during the First Temple period emphasized moral justice. His prophecies often highlighted the failure of Israel’s leaders and people to uphold these values, resulting in severe consequences as depicted in Isaiah 5:14. This focus on justice and the inevitability of divine consequences reflect the larger theme of Isaiah’s ministry, which called for repentance and adherence to God’s covenantal laws. Chapter 5 contains graphic prophetic warnings delivered by the prophet Isaiah, including a warning of impending judgment due to the moral and social decay in Israel and Judah, urging the people of Israel to repent before it is too late.
Isaiah 5:14 states,
Therefore Sheol has enlarged its appetite and opened its mouth beyond measure; and the nobility of Jerusalem and her multitude will descend, her tumult and he who exults in her.
Isaiah 5:14
While some translations translated “Therefore Death expands its jaws” (NIV) and “The grave is licking its lips in anticipation” (NLV), others, like the English Revised Version, translated “Therefore hell hath enlarged her desire.”
As we already covered, Sheol is a Hebrew word used in the Old Testament to describe the realm of the dead, often translated as the grave, having nothing to do with the modern concept of hellfire.
Isaiah 5:14 metaphorically describes the soon-reaching consequences of Israel, where the grave is depicted as expanding to accommodate the numerous who will die if Israel doesn’t repent.
In Isaiah 5:1-7, God likens Israel to a vineyard that has failed to produce good fruit despite His care. The following verses (8-23) contain a series of woes against various forms of social injustice and moral decay in Israel. Isaiah uses vivid imagery to depict the grave consequences of these sins. Has Isaiah’s prophetic warning come true?
Key Events Following Isaiah’s Prophecy:
- Assyrian Conquest of Israel (722 BCE): The Northern Kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrian Empire in 722 BCE, only a few decades after Isaiah’s prophecies. The Assyrians invaded, leading to the capture and deportation of many Israelites. This event marked a significant loss of life and the displacement of the population.
- Sennacherib’s Campaign against Judah (701 BCE): King Sennacherib of Assyria launched a campaign against the Southern Kingdom of Judah, devastating many cities, including Lachish. Although Jerusalem was miraculously spared, the campaign caused substantial destruction and loss of life.
- Babylonian Exile (586 BCE): The ultimate fulfillment of many of Isaiah’s prophecies of judgment came with the Babylonian conquest of Judah. In 586 BCE, Jerusalem was finally destroyed, the Temple was burned, and a significant portion of the population was killed or exiled to Babylon. This catastrophic event was a direct consequence of the continued moral and spiritual decline warned about by Isaiah.
To conclude, Isaiah’s warnings in Chapter 5 about the dire consequences of Israel’s and Judah’s sins were realized through several significant historical events, highlighting the accuracy and gravity of Isaiah’s prophetic warnings. Isaiah 5:14 uses the metaphor of a grave enlarging its size and readiness to receive many newcomers, depicting the extensive death casualties awaiting Israel. The depiction of Sheol underscores the severity of divine consequences in response to persistent injustice and disobedience. However, it was not perceived as related to the notion of everlasting torturous punishment in the afterlife.
Isaiah 66:23-24
Isaiah 66:23-24 is also often cited in discussions about hellfire judgment. However, a closer examination reveals a nuanced understanding that differs from some modern interpretations of eternal hellfire.
“From one New Moon to another and from one Sabbath to another, all mankind will come and bow down before me,” says the Lord. “And they will go out and look on the dead bodies of those who rebelled against me; the worms that eat them will not die, the fire that burns them will not be quenched, and they will be loathsome to all mankind.”
Isaiah 66:23-24
Isaiah 66 explores themes of divine sovereignty, judgment, and restoration, ultimately affirming God’s grand vision for humanity. The chapter presents a powerful narrative that juxtaposes God’s omnipotence with His expectations of true worship.
Section 1: God’s Infinite Dwelling (Verses 1-2): Isaiah opens with a declaration of God’s dominion, where the heavens serve as His throne and the earth as His footstool. This imagery underscores God’s omnipotence and His desire for genuine and humble worship, seeking those who revere His word rather than grandiose temples.
Section 2: False Worship and Divine Judgement (Verses 3-4): The text criticizes the hypocrisy in religious practices, equating insincere rituals to abhorrent acts. God promises retribution for those who follow their own corrupt inclinations, forewarning of severe consequences.
Section 3: Encouragement for the Faithful (Verses 5-9): This section offers hope and encouragement, using the metaphor of a pain-free birth to symbolize the swift and peaceful emergence of a new era for Jerusalem, urging the faithful to trust in God’s promise and timing.
Section 4: Future Glory for Jerusalem (Verses 10-14): Isaiah foretells a time of peace and prosperity for Jerusalem, drawing on the comforting image of a mother soothing her child to illustrate the deep, nurturing love God holds for His people.
Section 5: The Coming Judgement (Verses 15-17): A stark warning of imminent judgment is issued against the pagan nations.
Section 6: Gathering of the Nations and New Creation (Verses 18-24): The chapter concludes with a vision of universal gathering and renewal, contrasting peace with the grim fate of the pagan nations who did not listen and repent.
The imagery of unquenchable fire and undying worms is a potent metaphor often found in biblical texts, particularly used to describe the total and irrevocable destruction of nations. This symbolism, later to be used in the gospels, vividly portrays the aftermath of divine judgment, where the fire that consumes represents an unstoppable force of destruction that cannot be extinguished by human means. Simultaneously, the worms that do not die add a layer of ongoing decay, suggesting a perpetual state of ruin.
It is important to note, however, that Isaiah describes “dead bodies,” not “people ceaselessly tortured.”
Unquenched fire symbolizes complete consumption—nothing is left salvageable, akin to a landscape devastated by an uncontrolled blaze that leaves only ash and char in its wake. Meanwhile, the undying worms represent various decomposers, including certain types of worms, maggots, and beetles, who are well-known for their role in consuming decaying flesh. These organisms are critical in the process of decomposition, helping to break down dead organic matter. In this context, “worms that eat them will not die” suggests these pagan nations or empires will not rise again.
Malachi 4:1
Malachi 4:1 provides a stark warning about an imminent day of judgment, emphasizing its severity through vivid imagery:
“Surely the day is coming; it will burn like a furnace. All the arrogant and every evildoer will be stubble, and the day that is coming will set them on fire,” says the Lord Almighty. “Not a root or a branch will be left to them.”
Malachi 4:1
This imagery not only emphasizes the severity and decisiveness of the impending judgment but also anchors its significance firmly within the reality of post-exilic Israel, where the community grapples with moral and spiritual challenges.
The reference to a “day” that burns like a furnace—and there were many of these “judgment days” in Israel’s history—indicates a period of purification and judgment that is imminent and inescapable, yet temporal and for the purpose of purification. This metaphorical language is typical of prophetic literature, where the motif of fire often symbolizes God’s purifying Israel’s wickedness and the consuming wrath against sin. A few verses earlier, Malachi wrote:
He will sit as a refiner and purifier of silver; he will purify the Levites and refine them like gold and silver.
Malachi 3:3
The specificity of the judgment against “all the arrogant and every evildoer,” in the context of God’s relationship with Israel, highlights the comprehensive nature of divine justice, which targets all forms of unrighteousness within the community.
In Malachi’s time, the Israelites struggled with disillusionment and spiritual apathy after returning from exile. The prophet’s message serves as a stern reminder of the covenant obligations that the Israelites had neglected. The imagery of leaving neither “root nor branch” illustrates the total eradication of evil, ensuring that no vestige of corruption or defiance remains to corrupt the community anew.
Historically, its original audience would have understood this prophecy as a call to repentance and reform. It underscores the earthly judgments that God would meet within the community’s lifetime rather than a threat of eternal damnation in the afterlife—a concept unfamiliar to the Israelites. The prophetic warning is framed to galvanize the Israelites towards righteousness, contrasting their current complacency with the stark, destructive consequences of continued moral decay.
Thus, Malachi 4:1 serves as a prophetic warning and a promise of an unpleasant yet temporary purification. It reminds us that God’s justice is imminent and aimed at cleansing iniquities, thereby restoring the community to a state where it can truly flourish under divine guidance. The verse ultimately reinforces the theme that God’s interventions, though often severe, are meant to lead His people back to a path of righteousness, ensuring their long-term communal and spiritual health.
Hence, to interpret Malachi 4:1 as an allusion to eternal torment in hellfire would mean significantly overlooking the context of its composition. Even if one suggests that Malachi’s prophecies address both immediate earthly consequences for Israel and the afterlife, it follows that since Israel’s judgments were always temporary and aimed at purification, any analogous scenarios in the afterlife inferred from these verses would similarly be for purification’s sake rather than eternal.
Daniel 12:1-2
The Book of Daniel, including its apocalyptic visions, reflects the concerns and events of that era, making it one of the later additions to the Hebrew Bible. Daniel 12:1-2 is often cited in discussions about the afterlife and the concept of eternal conscious torment:
At that time shall arise Michael, the great prince who has charge of your people. And there shall be a time of trouble, such as never has been since there was a nation till that time. But at that time your people shall be delivered, everyone whose name shall be found written in the book. And many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt.
Daniel 12:1-2
However, a closer examination of its context reveals a different understanding. There are a few things to consider regarding these verses:
- The Book of Daniel is highly figurative, known for its rich use of allegory and symbolic imagery, such as the giant statue made of different materials (gold, silver, bronze, iron, and clay), the four beasts emerging from the sea, and the ram with two horns and a goat with a prominent horn. This context demands that interpretations consider these elements symbolic rather than literal textbook descriptions.
- “Your people” refers specifically to Daniel’s people, the Israelites. This targeting helps clarify the prophecies’ intended audience within the historical and cultural context of the Hebrew people.
- “MANY of them that sleep” will awaken, rather than ALL, indicates a selective process. This challenges the notion that Daniel speaks universally of last final judgment destinies like heaven or hell. This implies that the “waking up” may involve varied outcomes based on individual lives and actions rather than pointing to a universal or uniform judgment for all.
- “Book”: There are several references to “books” in the Hebrew Bible. For instance, Psalm 56:8 mentions a memory book: “You have kept count of my tossings; put my tears in your bottle. Are they not in your book?” while Malachi 3:16 speaks about the “book of remembrance.” These books symbolize records of people’s deeds and God’s acknowledgment of them. In Daniel, the “book” likely signifies the ledger containing the names of those among the Israelites faithful to God who will be delivered in times of tribulation. Considering that the “end times” began with Jesus’ birth, this reference could allude to various events, such as the catastrophes of 70-135 AD, during which Israel’s temple was destroyed, and many Jewish individuals were executed and exiled while Jewish believers in Jesus were preserved.
- Some scholars point to the clear allusions to Genesis 1-2 with terms like “dust” (AFAR) and “earth” (ADAMAH) found within this context. In this context, some interpret these as intertextual references to the ongoing conflict between good and evil—symbolized by the seed of the woman and the serpent. According to this interpretation, in the “day of the Lord”—not limited to a singular apocalyptic event—there will be divisions within Israel. Some will align with the woman’s seed, while others will align with the serpent’s seed. These verses are also enriched with celestial imagery that ties back to Moses and the Genesis creation narrative, where heavenly bodies like the sun, moon, and stars symbolize spiritual entities. Those aligned with the seed of the woman are destined to rule in a god-like manner; they will shine brightly, enact justice, and do so eternally in the New Eden or New Jerusalem.
- “Everlasting”: The Semitic term “OLAM,” often translated as “everlasting” or “forever,” generally signifies a lengthy duration rather than literal infinity, a later philosophical concept that did not exist in biblical times (more on that in a later chapter). In the Torah, “OLAM” is frequently used concerning the Law and commandments, though many Christians believe these are no longer applicable. Jeremiah refers to OLAM as a 70-year period (Jer 25:9), while Isaiah (32:14) and Jonah (Jonah 2:6) also use it to describe specific time spans. In Daniel, the juxtaposition of “everlasting [OLAM] life” with “everlasting [OLAM] shame and contempt” raises questions about their duration. Although both terms imply some form of equivalency, this doesn’t necessarily pertain to their length. Jewish tradition speaks of two eras: OLAM HAZEH (this current age/world) and OLAM HABA (the age/world to come). The reference to “OLAM” as pertaining to “the age to come,” rather than an indefinite period, suggests that in Daniel 12:2, the terms “life” and “shame and contempt” might both belong to the age to come qualitatively, without necessarily implying a never-ending duration.
- “Shame”: The distinction in Daniel 12 between life and disgrace does not create a strict bifurcation between two states of existence. While ‘shame’ is contrasted with ‘life,’ nothing suggests that ‘shame’ is inherently distinct from life itself. Since those experiencing shame and contempt are alive (or else they wouldn’t be able to feel), at least in some sense, those who awaken to shame at the resurrection might be depicted as shocked and surprised, suddenly aware of their misdeeds. Unlike pride, shame arises from the recognition of wrongdoing. Biblically, shame and restoration are compatible, as seen in passages like Ezekiel 16:63, where God forgives those who feel shame. This emotion, shame, symbolizes humility, remorse, and repentance—qualities valued by God. Most of today’s religious culture in the West views shame negatively, yet both Judaism and biblical narratives like that of the Prodigal Son illustrate shame’s positive role in prompting repentance and reconciliation (Luke 15:17). In Ezekiel 16:63, shame facilitates atonement and restoration, demonstrating that it can be part of a purification process: “that you may remember and be confounded, and never open your mouth again because of your shame, when I atone for you for all that you have done, declares the Lord GOD.” Thus, Daniel 12:2’s contrast between life and shame does not imply a clear bifurcation; rather, it suggests that individuals may experience both salvation and shame as part of their spiritual renewal. Therefore, even if taking Daniel 12:2 as speaking of the afterlife, it’s possible to understand “shame” and “everlasting” as a period of repentance that does not necessarily equate to perpetual torment.
There is more that can be said, but when considered, these seven points are enough to challenge the simplistic Augustinian-Calvinist interpretation of Daniel 12, highlighting its disregard for the context and meanings of the words involved.
Conclusion
As we have examined, the Torah and the rest of the Old Testament do not articulate a definitive doctrine of hellfire. Rather, proponents of the ECT hellfire theory, in the absence of explicit teaching, extrapolate from a handful of disparate verses to support their perspective, which is not substantiated by the text itself.
We also saw that the penalty for eating from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil was physical death, manifesting in the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden and the loss of access to the Tree of Life (Genesis 2:17; 3:22-24). God warned Adam and Eve, “for in the day that you eat of it you shall surely die” (Genesis 2:17), and on that day, they were banished from the Garden and denied access to the Tree of Life. This punishment is purely physical and immediate, with no indication of eternal torment in the afterlife.
The Hebrew Bible text consistently describes destruction as physical and immediate, affecting both individuals and nations. This is evident in the various divine judgments recorded, such as the flood (Genesis 6-9), the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19), and the numerous military defeats of Israel’s enemies.
If hellfire were a reality, we would expect Moses to mention it explicitly in the extensive laws and warnings given to Israel. The Mosaic Covenant, including the Ten Commandments and over 600 laws, delineates blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience, all within the context of this life (Deuteronomy 28). There is no mention of eternal torment in the afterlife as a consequence.
Furthermore, in Jeremiah 32:35, God harshly condemns the practice of burning people (as a sacrifice to Molech), stating that such an act “never entered His mind.” This declaration would be contradictory if God intended to subject the majority of humanity to eternal fire, as such an idea would inherently be in His mind.
The Hebrew Scriptures simply do not contain a concept of hellfire as understood in later Christian theology. This absence is significant because it suggests that the idea of eternal hellfire was not part of ancient Israel’s theology. Any doctrine that does not appear in the foundational texts of the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings cannot be considered a core biblical doctrine. This also begs the question—if the doctrine of hellfire did not originate from God, where did it originate from?
Additionally, we observed that the Hebrew word “Sheol,” often inconsistently translated in English Bibles as “hell,” among other words, actually symbolizes the grave (the realm of the dead, the underworld), not a place of eternal torment. The continued translation of “Sheol” as “hell” in some modern Bibles perpetuates misunderstandings, suggesting an interpretation of eternal torment that is not present in the original Hebrew text. This mistranslation obscures the original context and intent of the Scriptures, leading to a distorted view of biblical teachings on the afterlife.
As we move into the New Testament, it’s essential to recall that when the gospels and letters were composed, the Hebrew Scriptures were the only Bible. Jesus and his Jewish disciples’ teachings were rooted in these texts. The subsequent chapters’ analysis of New Testament passages will clarify whether the New Testament presents a novel doctrine, that of eternal hellfire, or maintains the themes established in the Old Testament.
This article was a copy-paste from my new book on hell: HELL: A Jewish Perspective on a Christian Doctrine
